John H. Sagers
· 2024
Abstract
Using an approach derived from Plutarch's Parallel Lives, Leopold Leeb has crafted a series of short biographical sketches that compare the experiences of mostly Christian pioneers of cross-cultural communication as they worked to make Western ideas intelligible to local audiences in China and Japan. Leeb focuses on Christians because “many of those who tried to be ‘cultural bridge-builders’ since the 16th century were Christian simply because the missionaries who worked hard to learn the native language were the first to try to introduce new cultural elements” (p. xxii). To illustrate this theme, the book contains 28 comparative chapters that highlight the stories of individuals from China and Japan in a particular category like missionaries, translators, early female converts, journalists, philanthropists, and pioneering physicians. Scholars interested in Christianity in East Asia and Christianity's role in modernisation will find these case studies fascinating. In the first chapters, we learn about early Catholic missions, the challenges of translating Christian concepts into local languages, and the conditions which led Chinese and Japanese people from different social statuses to convert, join religious orders, or become evangelists. The stories of Anjiro (1520–1565), a Japanese guide to Francis Xavier, and Zhong Mingren (1562–1621), early Jesuit brother and guide to Matteo Ricci, for example, illustrate how much religious education in East Asia changed from 1550 to 1590. Anjiro never had the opportunity to study in a Western school, but Zhong became a Jesuit brother and studied Portuguese, Latin, and theology. Comparisons of Chinese and Japanese cases across different time periods further illustrate major issues confronting those seeking to import Christian and scientific ideas from the West. Fukansai (1565–1621) was a Buddhist monk who converted to Catholicism. He transliterated the Tale of the Heike into Latin script so the Jesuits could read Japanese literature. In the early 1600s, he published dialogues between Buddhist and Christian ideas. Perhaps feeling pressure from the authorities, Fukansai eventually renounced his Christian beliefs and wrote anti-Christian literature. In China, Yang Tingyun (1557–1628) and other apologists focused on demonstrating Christianity's similarities with Confucianism and against Buddhism. Here the author makes the important comparative point, “In a sense, the tragic end of the mission in Japan after 1630 was due to the convictions of Confucianism, convictions which opposed any limits on the loyalty political rulers demanded. On the other hand, the Catholic Church's survival within the generally hostile environment of 17th- and 18th-century China was facilitated by Matteo Ricci's efforts to work out a viable ‘friendship’ with Confucian traditions, however precarious this relation turned out to be” (p. 29). The extent to which political leaders found Christianity to be a threat to existing notions of Confucian hierarchy and duty was a strong indicator of their tolerance of the new faith. The book also highlights the lives of prominent women. Hosokawa Garasha (1563–1600) and Candida Xu (1608–1680) were two converts during the early stage of Christian missions. Politically disgraced after her father assassinated warlord Oda Nobunaga, Hosokawa Garasha lived under house arrest. She learned Christian doctrines from her maid and received baptism in 1597 despite the government's growing hostility toward Christianity. Xu was baptised as a child and was interested in social work and established orphanages after she was widowed at 30. She lived into her 70s and was active in promoting women's education and charities. These women found meaning and a sense of mission in Christian faith. In the nineteenth century, Christian efforts to improve women's education greatly increased as the cases of Tsuda Umeko (1864–1929) and Zeng Baosun (1893–1978) demonstrate. Tsuda Umeko studied in America in the 1870s and was baptised. After additional study in the US, she founded the English College for Women in 1900. Through education, she promoted a vision of financial independence for women. Zeng Baosun was baptised in 1911 and studied in England from 1912 to 1917. She established the Yifang Girl's School in Changsha, Hunan, but instability from the Chinese Revolution and war with Japan threatened the school on several occasions. She ultimately moved to Taiwan in 1951 and worked to establish educational institutions there. Ogino Ginko (1851–1913) and Jin Yamei (1864–1934) became two of the first female physicians in Japan and China. Ogino had to obtain special permission to attend medical lectures in the 1870s. She passed the medical licensing exam in 1884 and opened a women's clinic. Jin was born in China, adopted by American missionaries, grew up in Japan, and studied in the United States. In 1888, she returned to China and helped establish medical clinics. Later chapters focus on individuals who explored Christian theology independent of Western churches and expressed Christian themes using native art forms. Uchimura Kanzo (1861–1930) controversially refused to bow deeply to the Japanese Imperial Rescript on Education because he believed such a bow to be an expression of idolatry. He later argued for a Christianity independent of Western church denominations and established Bible reading groups in homes. Wang Mingdao (1900–1991) maintained the independence his Christian evangelistic efforts from government efforts to establish an official church. He was critical of Communist Party policies and was sentenced to life imprisonment during the Anti-Rightist Campaign. Even after release in 1980, he refused to join the official church and led a house church until his death. Artists Chen Yuandu (1903–1967) and Watanabe Sadao (1913–1996) both used traditional styles to express Christian themes. Chen depicted Biblical and historical scenes in a traditional Chinese painting style. Watanabe Sadao deployed fabric dying techniques from the resurgent folk-arts movement to create prints of gospel stories in Japanese settings. These evangelists and artists were looking for expressions of Christianity that flowed from individual encounters with the Bible rather than from church doctrines or state regulations. Scholars interested in East Asian Christianity will find that this wide range of comparative life stories generates new insights and research possibilities and provides great examples for classroom discussion. It will be a welcome addition to any university library.